When Bobby Reviews Existing Research to Develop a Research Question He Is Involved in _______

Defining the Trouble

Defining a sociological problem helps frame a question to be addressed in the enquiry process.

Learning Objectives

Explain how the definition of the trouble relates to the research process

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• The beginning pace of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should exist narrow enough to study within the context of a particular exam but likewise broad plenty to have a more general applied or theoretical merit.
• For many sociologists, the goal is to conduct enquiry which may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical agreement of social processes. Discipline matter ranges from the micro level to the macro level.
• Like other sciences, sociology relies on the systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities to be considered valid. Given that sociology deals with topics that are often difficult to mensurate, this mostly involves operationalizing relevant terms.

Key Terms

• operational definition: A showing of something — such every bit a variable, term, or object — in terms of the specific process or prepare of validation tests used to determine its presence and quantity.
• operationalization: In humanities, operationalization is the procedure of defining a fuzzy concept so as to make the concept clearly distinguishable or measurable and to sympathise it in terms of empirical observations.

Defining the problem is necessarily the first step of the inquiry process. Subsequently the trouble and research question is divers, scientists generally gather information and other observations, course hypotheses, test hypotheses by collecting data in a reproducible way, analyze and translate that data, and describe conclusions that serve every bit a starting point for new hypotheses.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Enquiry: This prototype lists the various stages of the scientific method.

The commencement step of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and place the specific expanse of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to report inside the context of a particular test just also broad enough to have a more general practical or theoretical merit. For many sociologists, the goal is to conduct enquiry which may exist applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro level of private agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure.

Like other sciences, sociology relies on the systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities to be considered valid. Given that sociology deals with topics that are ofttimes difficult to measure, this generally involves operationalizing relevant terms. Operationalization is a procedure that describes or defines a concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it, as opposed to some more vague, inexact, or idealized definition. The operational definition thus identifies an observable condition of the concept. Past operationalizing a variable of the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner.

For example, intelligence cannot be directly quantified. Nosotros cannot say, simply past observing, exactly how much more intelligent one person is than another. But we tin operationalize intelligence in various ways. For instance, we might administer an IQ examination, which uses specific types of questions and scoring processes to give a quantitative measure out of intelligence. Or we might utilize years of education as a way to operationalize intelligence, assuming that a person with more years of instruction is also more intelligent. Of form, others might dispute the validity of these operational definitions of intelligence by arguing that IQ or years of instruction are not good measures of intelligence. After all, a very intelligent person may not take the means or inclination to pursue college education, or a less intelligent person may stay in school longer because they have trouble completing graduation requirements. In most cases, the way we cull to operationalize variables tin exist contested; few operational definitions are perfect. But nosotros must use the best approximation we tin can in order to have some sort of measurable quantity for otherwise unmeasurable variables.

Operationalizing Variables: This video discusses what information technology means to operationalize a variable using the example of "good health. "

Reviewing the Literature

Sociological researchers review past piece of work in their area of involvement and include this "literature review" in the presentation of their research.

Learning Objectives

Explain the purpose of literature reviews in sociological research

Key Takeaways

Central Points

• Literature reviews showcase researchers' cognition and understanding of the existing body of scholarship that relates to their enquiry questions.
• A thorough literature review demonstrates the ability to enquiry and synthesize. Furthermore, information technology provides a comprehensive overview of what is and is non known, and why the research in question is important to begin with.
• Literature reviews offer an caption of how the researcher can contribute toward the existing trunk of scholarship by pursuing their ain thesis or research question.

Key Terms

• essay: A written composition of moderate length exploring a particular issue or subject.
• Theses: A dissertation or thesis is a document submitted in support of campaigning for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the writer'due south inquiry and findings. The term thesis is besides used to refer to the general claim of an essay or like work.
• disciplinary: Of or relating to an academic field of study.

A literature review is a logical and methodical way of organizing what has been written nigh a topic by scholars and researchers. Literature reviews can normally be found at the beginning of many essays, research reports, or theses. In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey what a researcher has learned through a careful reading of a ready of manufactures, books, and other relevant forms of scholarship related to the research question. Furthermore, creating a literature review allows researchers to demonstrate the ability to find significant articles, valid studies, or seminal books that are related to their topic likewise as the analytic skill to synthesize and summarize different views on a topic or issue.

Library Research: Skilful literature reviews require exhaustive enquiry. Online resource brand this process easier, but researchers must nonetheless sift through stacks in libraries.

A strong literature review has the following properties:

• Information technology is organized around problems, themes, factors, or variables that are related direct to the thesis or inquiry question.
• Information technology demonstrates the researcher'southward familiarity with the body of knowledge past providing a good synthesis of what is and is not known nearly the discipline in question, while too identifying areas of controversy and argue, or limitations in the literature sharing different perspectives.
• Information technology indicates the theoretical framework that the researcher is working with.
• It places the formation of research questions in their historical and disciplinary context.
• Information technology identifies the well-nigh important authors engaged in similar work.
• It offers an caption of how the researcher can contribute toward the existing torso of scholarship past pursuing their own thesis or research question.

Formulating the Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a potential answer to your enquiry question; the research process helps you determine if your hypothesis is truthful.

Learning Objectives

Explain how hypotheses are used in sociological enquiry and the difference betwixt dependent and contained variables

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• Hypotheses are testable explanations of a problem, phenomenon, or observation.
• Both quantitative and qualitative inquiry involve formulating a hypothesis to accost the enquiry problem.
• Hypotheses that advise a causal human relationship involve at least one contained variable and at least one dependent variable; in other words, one variable which is presumed to affect the other.
• An independent variable is one whose value is manipulated by the researcher or experimenter.
• A dependent variable is a variable whose values are presumed to change as a outcome of changes in the independent variable.

Key Terms

• dependent variable: In an equation, the variable whose value depends on one or more variables in the equation.
• contained variable: In an equation, any variable whose value is not dependent on any other in the equation.
• hypothesis: Used loosely, a tentative conjecture explaining an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that tin exist tested by further observation, investigation, or experimentation.

A hypothesis is an supposition or suggested explanation almost how ii or more variables are related. It is a crucial step in the scientific method and, therefore, a vital aspect of all scientific inquiry. At that place are no definitive guidelines for the production of new hypotheses. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a flash of inspiration, or a hunch, which so motivated them to look for evidence to back up or refute the idea.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: This image lists the diverse stages of the scientific method.

While there is no single way to develop a hypothesis, a useful hypothesis will use deductive reasoning to make predictions that can be experimentally assessed. If results contradict the predictions, then the hypothesis under examination is incorrect or incomplete and must exist revised or abandoned. If results ostend the predictions, then the hypothesis might be correct but is yet field of study to further testing.

Both quantitative and qualitative inquiry involve formulating a hypothesis to accost the research problem. A hypothesis will by and large provide a causal explanation or propose some association between 2 variables. Variables are measurable phenomena whose values can modify under unlike conditions. For example, if the hypothesis is a causal caption, information technology will involve at to the lowest degree one dependent variable and 1 independent variable. In research, independent variables are the cause of the change. The dependent variable is the upshot, or thing that is changed. In other words, the value of a dependent variable depends on the value of the independent variable. Of course, this assumes that there is an bodily relationship betwixt the 2 variables. If there is no relationship, then the value of the dependent variable does not depend on the value of the contained variable.

Determining the Research Design

The research blueprint is the methodology and procedure a researcher follows to answer their sociological question.

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast quantitive methods and qualitative methods

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Research design defines the study type, research question, hypotheses, variables, and information collection methods. Some examples of research designs include descriptive, correlational, and experimental. Another stardom can be made between quantitative and qualitative methods.
• Sociological inquiry tin be conducted via quantitative or qualitative methods. Quantitative methods are useful when a researcher seeks to study big-calibration patterns of beliefs, while qualitative methods are more than effective when dealing with interactions and relationships in detail.
• Quantitative methods include experiments, surveys, and statistical analysis, among others. Qualitative methods include participant ascertainment, interviews, and content assay.
• An interpretive framework is one that seeks to understand the social world from the perspective of participants.
• Although sociologists often specialize in one approach, many sociologists use a complementary combination of design types and research methods in their research. Fifty-fifty in the same study a researcher may employ multiple methods.

Cardinal Terms

• quantitative methods: Quantitative inquiry refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.
• qualitative methods: Qualitative research is a method of research employed in many unlike academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth agreement of human behavior and the reasons that govern such beliefs. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not only what, where, and when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed than large samples.
• scientific method: A method of discovering cognition about the natural world based in making falsifiable predictions (hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing peer-reviewed theories that best explain the known data.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Enquiry: This paradigm lists the various stages of the scientific method.

A enquiry blueprint encompasses the methodology and procedure employed to conduct scientific research. Although procedures vary from 1 field of research to some other, identifiable features distinguish scientific enquiry from other methods of obtaining knowledge. In general, scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design enquiry to test these hypotheses via predictions which can exist derived from them.

The pattern of a study defines the report type, research question and hypotheses, contained and dependent variables, and data drove methods. At that place are many ways to classify research designs, but some examples include descriptive (instance studies, surveys), correlational (observational study), semi-experimental (field experiment), experimental (with random consignment), review, and meta-analytic, among others. Another distinction can exist made betwixt quantitative methods and qualitative methods.

Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods are generally useful when a researcher seeks to study big-scale patterns of beliefs, while qualitative methods are ofttimes more constructive when dealing with interactions and relationships in detail. Quantitative methods of sociological research arroyo social phenomena from the perspective that they can be measured and quantified. For instance, socio-economic condition (often referred to by sociologists as SES) can be divided into different groups such as working-class, middle-form, and wealthy, and can be measured using whatsoever of a number of variables, such as income and educational attainment.

Qualitative versus Quantitative Methods: These two researchers are debating the relative merits of using qualitative or quantitative methods to study social phenomena such as the learning processes of children.

Qualitative Methods

Qualitative methods are often used to develop a deeper agreement of a detail phenomenon. They likewise often deliberately surrender on quantity, which is necessary for statistical assay, in order to reach a greater depth in assay of the miracle being studied. While quantitative methods involve experiments, surveys, secondary data analysis, and statistical analysis, qualitatively oriented sociologists tend to use unlike methods of data drove and hypothesis testing, including participant observation, interviews, focus groups, content analysis, and historical comparison.

Qualitative sociological research is oft associated with an interpretive framework, which is more than descriptive or narrative in its findings. In dissimilarity to the scientific method, which follows the hypothesis-testing model in guild to find generalizable results, the interpretive framework seeks to understand social worlds from the signal of view of participants.

Although sociologists often specialize in one approach, many sociologists use a complementary combination of design types and research methods in their research. Fifty-fifty in the same study a researcher may employ multiple methods.

Defining the Sample and Collecting Data

Defining the sample and collecting data are primal parts of all empirical enquiry, both qualitative and quantitative.

Learning Objectives

Describe dissimilar types of enquiry samples

Primal Takeaways

Central Points

• Information technology is important to decide the scope of a research project when developing the question. The choice of method often depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. Quantitative and qualitative research projects crave different subject selection techniques.
• Information technology is important to determine the telescopic of a enquiry project when developing the question. While quantitative research requires at to the lowest degree xxx subjects to exist considered statistically significant, qualitative research mostly takes a more in-depth approach to fewer subjects.
• For both qualitative and quantitative enquiry, sampling can be used. The stages of the sampling process are defining the population of interest, specifying the sampling frame, determining the sampling method and sample size, and sampling and data collecting.
• There are various types of samples, including probability and nonprobability samples. Examples of types of samples include unproblematic random samples, stratified samples, cluster samples, and convenience samples.
• Practiced data collection involves following the defined sampling process, keeping the information in social club, and noting comments and non-responses. Errors and biases tin result in the data. Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample design. Non-sampling errors tin can likewise impact results.

Fundamental Terms

• data drove: Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting data.
• sample: A subset of a population selected for measurement, observation or questioning, to provide statistical information about the population.
• bias: The deviation between the expectation of the sample figurer and the truthful population value, which reduces the representativeness of the estimator by systematically distorting it.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Enquiry: This prototype lists the various stages of the scientific method.

Social scientists employ a range of methods in society to analyze a vast breadth of social phenomena. Many empirical forms of sociological research follow the scientific method. Scientific inquiry is mostly intended to be as objective as possible in guild to reduce the biased interpretations of results. Sampling and data collection are a key component of this process.

It is important to make up one's mind the scope of a inquiry project when developing the question. The selection of method ofttimes depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. For example, a researcher concerned with drawing a statistical generalization across an entire population may administrate a survey questionnaire to a representative sample population. Past dissimilarity, a researcher who seeks total contextual understanding of the social deportment of individuals may choose ethnographic participant observation or open-ended interviews. These two types of studies volition yield different types of information. While quantitative research requires at to the lowest degree 30 subjects to be considered statistically significant, qualitative research generally takes a more in-depth arroyo to fewer subjects.

Collecting Data: Natural scientists collect information past measuring and recording a sample of the thing they're studying, such as plants or soil. Similarly, sociologists must collect a sample of social information, often past surveying or interviewing a group of people.

In both cases, it behooves the researcher to create a concrete list of goals for collecting information. For instance, a researcher might place what characteristics should be represented in the subjects. Sampling tin be used in both quantitative and qualitative inquiry. In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the choice of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to gauge characteristics of the whole population. The stages of the sampling process are defining the population of involvement, specifying the sampling frame, determining the sampling method and sample size, and sampling and data collecting.

At that place are diverse types of samples. A probability sampling is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. Nonprobability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population take no chance of selection or where the probability of selection can't exist accurately determined. Examples of types of samples include unproblematic random samples, stratified samples, cluster samples, and convenience samples.

Skilful data collection involves post-obit the defined sampling process, keeping the data in time lodge, noting comments and other contextual events, and recording non-responses. Errors and biases tin result in the data. Sampling errors and biases, such as selection bias and random sampling error, are induced by the sample design. Not-sampling errors are other errors which tin impact the results, caused past problems in data drove, processing, or sample design.

Analyzing Data and Drawing Conclusions

Data analysis in sociological research aims to identify meaningful sociological patterns.

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast the analysis of quantitative vs. qualitative data

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Analysis of information is a procedure of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling information with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting conclusion making. Data analysis is a procedure, inside which several phases can be distinguished.
• Ane fashion in which assay can vary is by the nature of the information. Quantitative data is often analyzed using regressions. Regression analyses measure relationships between dependent and independent variables, taking the existence of unknown parameters into account.
• Qualitative data can be coded–that is, primal concepts and variables are assigned a shorthand, and the data gathered are cleaved downwards into those concepts or variables. Coding allows sociologists to perform a more rigorous scientific analysis of the data.
• Sociological data analysis is designed to produce patterns. It is important to think, still, that correlation does not imply causation; in other words, just because variables change at a proportional charge per unit, it does not follow that one variable influences the other.
• Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot be drawn. Internal validity concerns the degree to which conclusions about causality tin exist made. External validity concerns the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable.

Key Terms

• correlation: A reciprocal, parallel or complementary relationship between two or more comparable objects.
• causation: The act of causing; also the deed or bureau by which an effect is produced.
• Regression assay: In statistics, regression analysis includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the relationship betwixt a dependent variable and 1 or more independent variables. More than specifically, regression analysis helps one sympathize how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any ane of the contained variables is varied, while the other independent variables are held fixed.

The Procedure of Data Analysis

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. In statistical applications, some people divide data assay into descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data and CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on the application of statistical or structural models for predictive forecasting or classification. Text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify data from textual sources, a species of unstructured data.

Data assay is a process, within which several phases tin can be distinguished. The initial data analysis stage is guided by examining, amid other things, the quality of the data (for case, the presence of missing or extreme observations), the quality of measurements, and if the implementation of the study was in line with the research pattern. In the chief assay phase, either an exploratory or confirmatory approach can be adopted. Usually the arroyo is decided before data is collected. In an exploratory assay, no clear hypothesis is stated before analyzing the data, and the information is searched for models that describe the data well. In a confirmatory analysis, clear hypotheses about the data are tested.

Regression Analysis

The type of data analysis employed tin vary. One way in which assay frequently varies is by the quantitative or qualitative nature of the data.

Quantitative data can be analyzed in a variety of ways, regression analysis existence amidst the most popular. Regression analyses measure relationships between dependent and independent variables, taking the existence of unknown parameters into business relationship. More specifically, regression analysis helps ane understand how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while the other independent variables are held stock-still.

Linear Regression: This graph illustrates random information points and their linear regression.

A large body of techniques for conveying out regression analysis has been developed. In exercise, the operation of regression analysis methods depends on the class of the data generating process and how information technology relates to the regression arroyo existence used. Since the truthful class of the data-generating process is generally not known, regression analysis frequently depends to some extent on making assumptions well-nigh this process. These assumptions are sometimes testable if a big amount of information is available. Regression models for prediction are oft useful even when the assumptions are moderately violated, although they may non perform optimally. Yet, in many applications, particularly with small effects or questions of causality based on observational data, regression methods give misleading results.

Coding

Qualitative data can involve coding–that is, cardinal concepts and variables are assigned a shorthand, and the information gathered is cleaved downward into those concepts or variables. Coding allows sociologists to perform a more than rigorous scientific analysis of the data. Coding is the process of categorizing qualitative data so that the data becomes quantifiable and thus measurable. Of form, earlier researchers can lawmaking raw information such as taped interviews, they need to have a articulate enquiry question. How data is coded depends entirely on what the researcher hopes to notice in the information; the same qualitative data can be coded in many different ways, calling attention to dissimilar aspects of the data.

Coding Qualitative Data: Qualitative information can be coded, or sorted into categories. Coded information is quantifiable. In this bar nautical chart, help requests have been coded and categorized so we can see which types of help requests are most mutual.

Sociological Data Assay

Sociological information analysis is designed to produce patterns. It is important to recall, however, that correlation does not imply causation; in other words, but because variables alter at a proportional rate, it does not follow that i variable influences the other.

Correlation, Causation, and Spurious Relationships: This mock newscast gives iii competing interpretations of the same survey findings and demonstrates the dangers of bold that correlation implies causation.

Conclusions

In terms of the kinds of conclusions that can be fatigued, a report and its results can be assessed in multiple ways. Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot exist drawn. Internal validity is an inductive estimate of the degree to which conclusions almost causal relationships can be made (e.k., cause and result), based on the measures used, the research setting, and the whole research pattern. External validity concerns the extent to which the (internally valid) results of a study can be held to exist truthful for other cases, such as to different people, places, or times. In other words, information technology is about whether findings can be validly generalized. Learning nigh and applying statistics (besides equally knowing their limitations) can help you better understand sociological research and studies. Knowledge of statistics helps you makes sense of the numbers in terms of relationships, and it allows yous to enquire relevant questions nearly sociological phenomena.

Preparing the Research Study

Sociological research publications generally include a literature review, an overview of the methodology followed, the results and an assay of those results, and conclusions.

Learning Objectives

Depict the main components of a sociological inquiry paper

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Similar whatsoever research paper, a sociological inquiry report typically consists of a literature review, an overview of the methods used in data collection, and assay, findings, and conclusions.
• A literature review is a artistic manner of organizing what has been written about a topic by scholars and researchers.
• The methods section is necessary to demonstrate how the study was conducted, including the population, sample frame, sample method, sample size, data collection method, and data processing and analysis.
• In the findings and determination sections, the researcher reviews all significant findings, notes and discusses all shortcomings, and suggests hereafter enquiry.

Key Terms

• methodology: A collection of methods, practices, procedures, and rules used by those who work in some field.
• quantitative: Of a measurement based on some quantity or number rather than on some quality.
• literature review: A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current cognition including substantive findings too as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.

Like any research paper, sociological research is presented with a literature review, an overview of the methods used in information collection, and assay, findings, and conclusions. Quantitative inquiry papers are usually highly formulaic, with a clear introduction (including presentation of the problem and literature review); sampling and methods; results; discussion and conclusion. In striving to be equally objective as possible in club to reduce biased interpretations of results, sociological esearch papers follow the scientific method. Research reports may be published as books or journal articles, given directly to a customer, or presented at professional meetings.

The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: The scientific method is a torso of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous cognition.

A literature review is a creative way of organizing what has been written about a topic past scholars and researchers. You volition find literature reviews at the beginning of many essays, enquiry reports, or theses. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what you have learned through a careful reading of a set of articles related to your research question.

A potent literature review has the following properties:

• Information technology is organized around issues, themes, factors, or variables that are related directly to your thesis or enquiry question.
• Information technology shows the path of prior research and how the electric current project is linked.
• It provides a good synthesis of what is, and is not, known.
• Information technology indicates the theoretical framework with which yous are working.
• It identifies areas of controversy and debate, or limitations in the literature sharing different perspectives.
• It places the formation of enquiry questions in their historical context.
• It identifies the list of the authors that are engaged in similar work.

The methodssection is necessary to demonstrate how the study was conducted, and that the information is valid for study. Without assurance that the research is based on audio methods, readers cannot countenance any conclusions the researcher proposes. In the methodology section, be sure to include: the population, sample frame, sample method, sample size, data collection method, and data processing and analysis. This is besides a section in which to clearly present data in tabular array and graph course.

In the findings and conclusion sections, the researcher reviews all significant findings, notes and discusses all shortcomings, and suggests future research. The decision section is the simply section where opinions tin can be expressed and persuasive writing is tolerated.

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